How did humans imagine the universe during the Ancient and Middle Ages?
Jul 22

在古代和中世紀(jì)，人類是如何想象宇宙的？
7月22日


Image by NASA comparing the Fra Mauro map, 1459 with a satellite image of the world. NASA notes the map was remarkably accurate for the time, despite the limitations.

美國國家航空航天局將1459年的弗拉毛羅地圖與衛(wèi)星拍攝的世界地圖進(jìn)行了比較，NASA注意到，盡管存在局限性，但這張地圖在當(dāng)時(shí)非常精確。
圖片來源: 維基共享資源

HHave you ever wondered how ancient explorers travelled to a new country? Because of a lack of accurate calculations, understanding of map making, also known as cartography, was at a primitive stage. Humans did not know how vast their planet was. Often, a country’s borders appeared to encompass the entire universe.

你有沒有想過古代的探險(xiǎn)家們是如何到達(dá)一個(gè)新的國家的？由于缺乏精確的計(jì)算，人們對(duì)地圖制作(也稱為制圖學(xué))的理解還處于原始階段，人類不知道他們的星球有多大，通常，一個(gè)國家的邊界似乎包圍了整個(gè)宇宙。
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As cultures traded knowledge and trade expanded, so did the art and science of mapmaking. On the world map, we identified cultures that had never been encountered before. The equator, tropics, and North and South Poles were all located.

隨著文化交流知識(shí)和貿(mào)易的擴(kuò)大，繪制地圖的藝術(shù)和科學(xué)也隨之?dāng)U大，在世界地圖上，我們發(fā)現(xiàn)了以前從未遇到過的文化，赤道、熱帶和南北極都分布在這里。

In the 15th century, the age of discovery began. However, prior to the age of discovery, the frontiers of nations and their territories were not properly defined.

15世紀(jì)，地理大發(fā)現(xiàn)時(shí)代開始了，然而，在發(fā)現(xiàn)時(shí)代之前，各國的邊界及其領(lǐng)土并沒有得到適當(dāng)?shù)慕缍ā?/b>

Maps began by describing mythical regions, such as the Babylonian World Map, and became increasingly detailed over time, assisting explorers in finding alternative routes. Let us look at ten world maps before the age of discovery, which tell us a story of human exploration.

地圖從描述神秘的地區(qū)開始，例如巴比倫世界地圖，并且隨著時(shí)間的推移變得越來越詳細(xì)，幫助探險(xiǎn)家尋找替代的路線，讓我們看看發(fā)現(xiàn)時(shí)代之前的十幅世界地圖，它們告訴我們一個(gè)人類探索的故事。

I took Christopher Columbus’ voyage to the Americas in 1492 as the starting point for the Age of Discovery. Though there had been world journeys prior to 1492, such as Chinese admiral Zheng He’s explorations, Christopher Columbus’ voyage sparked a worldwide interest in discovering new territories.
As a result, using 1492 as a reference point appears to be justified.

我把克里斯托弗·哥倫布1492年對(duì)美洲的航行作為 "發(fā)現(xiàn)時(shí)代 "的起點(diǎn)，盡管在1492年之前已經(jīng)有過世界航行，比如中國的鄭和將軍的探險(xiǎn)之旅，但克里斯托弗·哥倫布的航行激發(fā)了世界范圍內(nèi)發(fā)現(xiàn)新領(lǐng)土的興趣。
因此，使用1492作為參考點(diǎn)似乎是合理的。

Babylonian map of the world (6th century BCE)

巴比倫世界地圖 (公元前6世紀(jì))



巴比倫世界地圖，已知最古老的地圖 圖片來源: 維基共享資源

The Babylonian world map, which dates from the sixth century BCE, is the oldest found map. The reconstructed map depicts Babylon on the Euphrates River’s banks, surrounded by a circular continent. A “bitter river” or an ocean encircles the kingdoms of Assyria and Urartu (modern Armenia). It depicted the city of Babylon and the Euphrates River as rectangles. You’ll notice circles surrounding the rectangles. These represent the cities of Assyria and Susa.

巴比倫世界地圖可以追溯到前6世紀(jì)，是迄今發(fā)現(xiàn)的最早的地圖，重繪后的地圖描繪了幼發(fā)拉底河兩岸的巴比倫，周圍環(huán)繞著一個(gè)圓形的大陸，一條 "苦河 " 或者一片海洋環(huán)繞著亞述和烏拉爾圖王國(現(xiàn)代的亞美尼亞)，它把巴比倫城和幼發(fā)拉底河描繪成長方形，你可以注意到矩形周圍的圓圈，這些城市代表亞述和蘇薩城（古波斯城市）。

There are eight outlying places drawn as triangles, with details for five of them surviving. According to the Babylonians, these were places beyond human settlement and contain mystical descxtions. The third region, for example, is a spot where “winged birds cannot reach.” In the fourth region, “the light is brighter than the sun and the stars,” whereas in the fifth region, “the sun cannot reach,” resulting in total darkness.

有八個(gè)偏遠(yuǎn)的地方被畫成了三角形，其中有五個(gè)地方的細(xì)節(jié)被保存下來，根據(jù)巴比倫人的說法，這些地方超出了人類的定居范圍，并且包含了神秘的描述，例如，第三個(gè)區(qū)域是“有翼鳥類無法到達(dá)的地方”，在第四個(gè)區(qū)域，“光線比太陽和星星還亮”，而在第五個(gè)區(qū)域，“太陽無法到達(dá)”，導(dǎo)致完全黑暗。

Eratosthenes’ world map (276- 194 BCE)

埃拉托色尼世界地圖(公元前276-194年)



埃拉托色尼（公元前三世紀(jì)希臘天文學(xué)家、數(shù)學(xué)家和地理學(xué)家）

World map according to Eratosthenes, 19th century reconstruction. Image source: Wikimedia Commons

埃拉托色尼世界地圖，19世紀(jì)重繪 圖片來源: 維基共享資源

The exploits of Alexander the Great in Persia and India offered valuable information to Greek polymath Eratosthenes( 276–194 BCE). Prior to him, Europeans did not know how big Asia was. They had a clearer understanding of its vastness now.

亞歷山大大帝在波斯和印度的發(fā)現(xiàn)為希臘博學(xué)者埃拉托色尼 ( Eratosthenes，公元前276-194年) 提供了有價(jià)值的信息，在他之前，歐洲人不知道亞洲有多大，他們現(xiàn)在對(duì)它的廣闊有了更清楚的了解。

Eratosthenes was the first geographer to incorporate medians and parallels into his world map. This shows that he was fully aware of the Earth’s spherical nature. The map was more accurate than its predecessors and helped with a better understanding of Asia and Africa. Africa was known as Libya in ancient times.

埃拉托色尼是第一個(gè)將平面線和平行線納入世界地圖的地理學(xué)家，這表明他完全意識(shí)到了地球的球形本質(zhì)，這張地圖比以前的地圖更加精確，有助于更好地了解亞洲和非洲，非洲在古代被稱為利比亞。

Strabo’s world map (64 BCE- 24 CE)

斯特拉波世界地圖(公元前64年 -24年)
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Strabo’s world map from his notable work Geographica. Image source:

斯特拉波的世界地圖 來自他的著名作品《地理》圖片來源：維基共享資源
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Strabo’s 17-volume Geographica was one of the most well-researched publications in the ancient world. It documented the history of people and locations all across the earth.

斯特拉波的17卷本《地理》是古代世界中研究最深入的著作之一，它記錄了世界各地的人和地點(diǎn)的歷史。

Strabo cited Eratosthenes’ and astronomer Hipparchus’ writings for their mathematical expertise, but he considered his comprehensive descxtive method was better suited to understanding geography.

斯特拉波的著作引用了埃拉托色尼和天文學(xué)家希帕爾庫斯的數(shù)學(xué)知識(shí)，但他認(rèn)為他的全面描述方法更適合于理解地理學(xué)。

Strabo included a map of Europe in Geographica. His descxtions of different regions were used to rebuild the map of the entire world as shown above.

斯特拉博在《地理》中包括了一幅歐洲地圖，他對(duì)不同地區(qū)的描述被用來重繪如上所示的整個(gè)世界的地圖。

Ptolemy’s world map ( c.150 CE)

托勒密世界地圖(公元前150年)


Oldest surviving map of the world according to Ptolemy, dating to 14th century. Image source:

現(xiàn)存最古老的世界地圖，根據(jù)托勒密的說法，可以追溯到14世紀(jì)
圖片來源: 維基共享資源

Ptolemy’s world map, drawn around 150 CE, was the first to employ a mathematical approach to cartography. For centuries after his death, world maps were created using the ideas devised by him.

托勒密世界地圖，繪制于公元150年左右，是第一個(gè)采用數(shù)學(xué)方法繪制的地圖，在他死后的幾個(gè)世紀(jì)里，世界地圖都是根據(jù)他的想法創(chuàng)作的。
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Ptolemy, or Claudius Ptolemaeus, was a Greek polymath who lived in Alexandria, Egypt. He wrote the Geography, an eight-volume treatise that comprised mathematically calculated descxtions of locations around the world.Original Ptolemy maps have not survived to this day, and the oldest maps based on his drawings were discovered in the 13th century Byzantine Empire.

托勒密，或者托勒玫，是一個(gè)住在埃及亞歷山大的希臘博學(xué)者，他寫了一本名為《地理學(xué)》(Geography)的專著，共有八卷，其中包括用數(shù)學(xué)方法計(jì)算了世界各地的地理位置，最早的托勒密地圖已經(jīng)不復(fù)存在，基于托勒密繪制的最古老的地圖是在13世紀(jì)的拜占庭帝國發(fā)現(xiàn)的。

Ptolemy’s map was exceptional back in those days, including depictions of far-flung countries previously unknown to Europeans. Iceland and Korea were two examples of countries that he identified using geometric projections of latitudes and longitudes. India was shown between the rivers Indus and Ganges, albeit with a reduced peninsula. This was the first time a European cartographer presented an approximation of the Indian subcontinent’s size.

托勒密繪制的地圖在那個(gè)年代是非同尋常的，它描繪了歐洲人以前不知道的遙遠(yuǎn)國家。
冰島和朝鮮是他通過緯度和經(jīng)度的幾何投影確定的兩個(gè)國家，印度位于印度河和恒河之間，盡管半島面積減小，這是歐洲制圖師第一次提出印度次大陸大小的近似值。

The accuracy was amazing for the time, yet Ptolemy made some obvious mistakes, such as depicting the Indian Ocean as a sea. The map helps in understanding the extent of Roman trade with India and China, although China is not included on the map. Roman trading ports were shown extensively in the map.

在當(dāng)時(shí)，其準(zhǔn)確性是驚人的，然而托勒密犯了一些顯而易見的錯(cuò)誤，比如把印度洋描繪成一片大海。
這張地圖有助于了解羅馬與印度和中國之間貿(mào)易的范圍，盡管中國不在地圖上，但羅馬的貿(mào)易港口在地圖上標(biāo)示得很清楚。

Tabula Peutingeriana: All roads lead to Rome (4th century CE)

波伊廷格地圖: 條條大路通羅馬 (公元4世紀(jì))


Part of the Tabula Peutingeriana covering the Dalmatian coast, Adriatic sea, southern Italy and the North African coast. Image source: Wikimedia Commons.

部分波伊廷格地圖覆蓋達(dá)爾馬提亞海岸、亞得里亞海、意大利南部和北非海岸
圖片來源: 維基共享資源
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The Tabula Peutingernia was an illustrated map of the Roman Empire’s roadways. Historians claim the map was created by the Roman general Agrippa during Emperor Augustus’ reign. But no original records of the map from Augustus’ reign were found. But there are strong hints in the map to suggest it was commissioned during Augustus’ reign ( 31 BCE- 14 CE). Konrad Peutinger, a 16th-century German scholar, restored the map, and it is named after him.

波伊廷格地圖一幅繪羅馬帝國道路的地圖，歷史學(xué)家聲稱，這幅地圖是羅馬將軍阿格里帕在奧古斯都大帝統(tǒng)治時(shí)期繪制的，但是沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)奧古斯都統(tǒng)治時(shí)期地圖的原始記錄，地圖上有很強(qiáng)的線索表明它是在奧古斯都統(tǒng)治時(shí)期(公元前31-14年) 委托繪制的，16世紀(jì)的德國學(xué)者康拉德 · 佩廷格爾修復(fù)了這張地圖，并以他的名字命名。

The map depicts Europe, Asia (including the Middle East, Persia, and India), and North Africa. It includes the city of Pompeii, which was destroyed by Mount Vesuvius’ volcanic explosion in 79 CE. It shows a temple of Augustus at the coastal city of Muziris, which was on the Malabar Coast of the Indian state of Kerala. These are the strongest indicators that the map was much older than its accepted date of 4th century CE.
The Tabula Peutingernia was a one-of-a-kind representation of the world map that was intended for travelers and included itineraries for places along Roman highways.

這張地圖描繪了歐洲、亞洲(包括中東、波斯和印度)和北非，其中包括公元79年被維蘇威火山爆發(fā)摧毀的龐貝城，這張圖展示了印度喀拉拉邦沿海城市穆吉里斯的一座奧古斯都神廟，這個(gè)城市位于馬拉巴海岸，這些都是最有力的證據(jù)，表明這幅地圖的年代比公認(rèn)的公元4世紀(jì)要早得多。
波伊廷格地圖是一幅為旅行者準(zhǔn)備的獨(dú)一無二的世界地圖，包括了羅馬公路沿線的地方路線。

The T and O map by Isidore of Seville ( c 636 CE)

塞維利亞的伊西多爾繪制的T-O地圖(公元636年)
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Diagram of the T-O world map from 12th century copy of Etymologiae. Image source: Wikimedia Commons.

T-O世界地圖，出自12世紀(jì)的《詞源學(xué)》手抄本
圖片來源:維基共享

Isidore of Seville, a Spanish scholar and clergyman, created the T and O world map, also known as the Isidorian world map, in the 7th century. The map divides the world into three sections along the letter T, with Asia, Europe, and Africa portrayed as continents. In his work, Etymology, Isidore explains the map as follows:

西班牙學(xué)者、牧師伊西多爾(Isidore of Seville)在7世紀(jì)繪制了T-O世界地圖，也被稱為伊西多爾世界地圖，地圖沿著字母 T 將世界分為三個(gè)部分，亞洲、歐洲和非洲被描繪成大陸，在他的著作《詞源學(xué)》一書中，伊西多爾對(duì)這幅地圖的解釋如下:

“The [inhabited] mass of solid land is called round after the roundness of a circle, because it is like a wheel […] Because of this, the Ocean flowing around it is contained in a circular limit, and it is divided in three parts, one part being called Asia, the second Europe, and the third Africa.”
— Etymologiae, chapter 14, de terra et partibus.

“有人居住的大片固體陸地被稱為‘圓’，因?yàn)樗拖褚粋€(gè)輪子...... 圍繞著它流動(dòng)的海洋被包含在一個(gè)圓形的極限中，它被分成三部分，一部分被稱為亞洲，第二個(gè)部分是歐洲和第三個(gè)部分是非洲?！?br /> ——詞源學(xué)，第14章

Isidore of Seville believed the Earth was round, and his descxtions covered just half of the globe, maybe the known inhabited areas of the world at the time to cartographers.

伊西多爾認(rèn)為地球是圓的，而他的描述只覆蓋了半個(gè)地球，也許是當(dāng)時(shí)地圖繪圖者已知的有人居住的地區(qū)。

Mahmud al-Kashgari’s world map (1072)

馬哈茂德·喀什噶里世界地圖 (1072年)


Mahmud al Kashgari’s world map from his book Diwan Lughat al-Turk. Image source:Wikimedia Commons.

馬哈茂德·喀什噶里世界地圖源自其著作《突厥語大辭典》
圖片來源:維基共享

In his book the Compendium of the Languages of the Turks, ...... scholar Mahmud-al Kashgari created a different world map than the ones made by Europeans. This world map was more Asia-centric, with Balasagun, a former Sogadian metropolis in contemporary Kyrgyzstan, at its centre. In contrast European maps had Jerusalem as the center of the Earth, probably due to its religious significance.

馬哈茂德·喀什噶里在他的《突厥玉大辭典》一書中創(chuàng)造了一個(gè)與歐洲人不同的世界地圖，這幅世界地圖更加以亞洲為中心，以當(dāng)代吉爾吉斯斯坦的前索加迪大都市--巴拉薩貢為中心，相比之下，歐洲地圖將耶路撒冷作為地球的中心，這可能是由于其宗教意義。

The Caspian Sea is in the north, China and Japan are in the east, Iraq, Armenia, and Egypt are in the west, Hindustan (Northern India) and Kashmir are in the south according to al-Kashgari’s map.
The map’s red lines depict mountain ranges, while the blue lines represent rivers.

根據(jù)馬哈茂德·喀什噶里地圖，里海在北部，中國和日本在東部，伊拉克、亞美尼亞和埃及在西部，印度斯坦(印度北部) 和克什米爾在南部。
地圖的紅線表示山脈，藍(lán)線表示河流。
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Tabula Rogeriana (1154)

Tabula Rogeriana地圖（1154年）


Reconstruction of Al-Idrisi’s world map by German cartographer Konrad Miller. Image source:Al-Idrisi:Wikimedia Commons

由德國制圖師康拉德米勒重建的穆罕默德·伊德里西世界地圖
圖片來源: 維基共享

During his service to King of Sicily Roger II, Moroccan geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi created one of the most accurate maps of the time, the Tabula Rogeriana. To expand on the knowledge of Africa, the Far East, and the Indian Ocean, al-Idirisi combined the information compiled by Greek, Roman cartographers, as well as descxtions of the world by Arab traders.

在為西西里國王羅杰二世服務(wù)期間，摩洛哥地理學(xué)家穆罕默德·伊德里西創(chuàng)造了當(dāng)時(shí)最精確的地圖之一——Tabula Rogeriana，為了擴(kuò)展對(duì)非洲、遠(yuǎn)東和印度洋的了解，穆罕默德·伊德里西將希臘、羅馬制圖師編纂的資料以及阿拉伯商人對(duì)世界的描述結(jié)合起來。
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He also interviewed European travelers and compiled their responses to explain the people’s politics, climate, and culture. Al-Idrisi covers seven climate zones in his book. The calculation of the Earth’s circumference was quite precise for the time, with an error of 10% of the actual value.
The map is still considered one of the most important maps of all time.

他還采訪了一些歐洲旅行者，并收集了他們的回答，以解釋當(dāng)?shù)氐恼?、氣候和文化，穆罕默德·伊德里西在他的書中涵蓋了七個(gè)氣候區(qū)，地球周長的計(jì)算在當(dāng)時(shí)是相當(dāng)精確的，誤差為實(shí)際值的10% 。
這張地圖仍然被認(rèn)為是有史以來最重要的地圖之一。
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Da Ming Hunyi Tu ( c 1389)
China’s Da Ming Hun Yi Tu world map. Image sourceWikimedia Commons.


大明混一圖 (公元1389年)
圖片來源: 維基共享

The Da Ming Hunyi Tu, or the Amalgamated Map of the Ming Empire, is the world’s oldest surviving map from the Far East. The Chinese Ming Empire takes up most of the map. It showed Japan and Korea as larger than India.

大明混一圖 ，或稱明帝國混合地圖，是世界上現(xiàn)存最古老的遠(yuǎn)東地圖，中國明朝占據(jù)了地圖的大部分，這幅地圖中日本和韓國比印度大。

Africa is depicted as quite small compared to its true boundaries, but it was one of the first maps to display the Cape of Good Hope, Africa’s tip. This became significant later in history when navigators realized it was possible to go to Asia from Europe by circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope.

與真實(shí)的邊界相比，非洲被描繪成一個(gè)相當(dāng)小的地方，但是它是最早展示非洲好望角的地圖之一，這在后來的歷史上變得意義重大，因?yàn)楹胶＜覀円庾R(shí)到，從歐洲環(huán)繞好望角航行到亞洲是可能的。

Fra Mauro World Map (1459)
The Fra Mauro World Map, 1459. Image source : Wikimedia Commons


弗拉 · 毛羅世界地圖(1459年)
圖片來源: 維基共享

The Fra Mauro map, created by the Venetian monk and geographer Fra Mauro, is often regarded as the pinnacle of medi cartography. The map was the most precise global map made prior to the beginning of the Age of Discovery.

由威尼斯僧侶和地理學(xué)家弗拉 · 毛羅繪制的弗拉毛羅地圖，通常被認(rèn)為是中世紀(jì)制圖學(xué)的頂峰，這張地圖是地理大發(fā)現(xiàn)時(shí)代開始之前制作的最精確的全球地圖

When Mauro created his world map, it was the largest map in the world. There are four spheres in each corner of the map.
It depicted the Earth as a globe, with the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer, the Equator, the North Pole, and the South Pole in the upper left corner. Moving clockwise, we can find the garden of Eden at the top right. The solar system, adapted from Ptolemy’s depiction of the universe, can be found in the bottom right of the map. Finally, the four elements earth, fire, wind, and water are shown in the bottom left corner.

毛羅繪制的世界地圖是當(dāng)時(shí)世界上最大的地圖，地圖的每個(gè)角上都有四個(gè)球體。
它把地球描繪成一個(gè)地球儀，摩羯座和巨蟹座在熱帶地區(qū)，赤道、北極和南極在左上角，順時(shí)針方向移動(dòng)，我們可以在右上角找到伊甸園。
太陽系，改編自托勒密對(duì)宇宙的描述，可以在地圖右下角找到，最后，左下角顯示了土、火、風(fēng)、水四種元素。
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Mauro, when creating the map, disregarded several established conventions. He did not show Jerusalem as the centre of the universe. European charts placed the East on top of the map, whereas Arab maps placed the South on top. North was at the top of Ptolemy’s map. Mauro positioned the South on top of the global map based on nautical calculations of the period.
Mauro’s observations were based on current scientific understanding, and he was not afraid to challenge preconceived assumptions.

在繪制地圖時(shí)，毛羅忽略了一些既定的慣例，他沒有把耶路撒冷當(dāng)成宇宙的中心，歐洲的地圖把東方放在地圖的頂部，而阿拉伯的地圖把南方放在地圖的頂部，托勒密地圖將北方置于頂端，根據(jù)當(dāng)時(shí)的航海計(jì)算，毛羅將南方定位在全球地圖的頂部。
毛羅的觀察是基于當(dāng)時(shí)的科學(xué)理解，他不怕挑戰(zhàn)先入為主的假設(shè)。

The early maps from ancient and medi period provided valuable information and helped shape the science of cartography. These maps were used by future generations of explorers to navigate around the world.

古代和中世紀(jì)的早期地圖提供了有價(jià)值的信息，有助于形成制圖學(xué)，這些地圖被后代的探險(xiǎn)家用來環(huán)游世界。

Christopher Columbus was one such adventurer who tried to find a short route to China. Contrary to popular belief he did not set out to prove the Earth was Round. We can see from this story European and Middle Eastern scholars already understood that Earth was round. Despite that, the myth is propagated till this date. Read the story below which debunks the Flat Earth and other middle ages myths.

克里斯托弗·哥倫布就是這樣的一個(gè)冒險(xiǎn)家，他試圖找到一條去中國的短途路線。
與人們普遍認(rèn)為的相反，他并沒有著手證明地球是圓的，我們從這個(gè)故事中可以看出，歐洲和中東的學(xué)者已經(jīng)知道地球是圓的，盡管如此，哥倫布證明地球是圓的這個(gè)流言一直流傳至今，下面的故事揭穿了地平說和其他中世紀(jì)的神話：
鏈接：關(guān)于中世紀(jì)你不應(yīng)該相信的7個(gè)流言

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